The Evolution of the English Language

The Evolution of the English language into Today’s Modern English and The Most Widely Used Language in the World

Research Question: How did English evolve to become the English spoken today and the most widely used language in the world out of a second-rate language?

May 2015

                       WRITTEN BY : MEHMET GÖKSU KAYAALP

ABSTRACT

This essay will explore and discuss how and why the English language developed to become today’s Modern English and the world’s most widely used language from a second-rate peasants’ language. To answer this question, a wide research is done and a variety of sources are read, examined and compared. The essay will first talk about the birth of the English language and its roots starting from the Anglo-Saxon migration to the British Isles, the influences of other languages on English, the changes it went through and the major periods when it spread most rapidly around the world. Not only will it give a short summary of the language’s history, it will also give specific word examples from different eras and draw conclusions and generalizing statements from these examples and the history of English. Furthermore, the essay will compare English to other world languages at some points according to some aspects such as grammar complexity, vocabulary richness in order to fully investigate why it has evolved to become the most widely used one in the world. conclusion drawn from this research would be that the English language is the most widely used language in the world because of Britain’s history of colonization and the impact of the Industrial Revolution, America’s economic and political dominance from the 20^th century onwards, its grammatical simplicity, flexibility, its richness in vocabulary due to its amazing word borrowing tradition.

Table of Contents

Introduction……………………………………………..4

Anglo-Saxons……………………………………………5-6

Vikings…………………………………………………...6

Normans………………………………………………….7

Latin……………………………………………………..8

Grammatical Simplification and Inflection…………...9-11

The British Empire and Colonization…………………11-12

The Industrial Revolution……………………………..12-13

The Dominance of the US……………………………...13-15

Opposition………………………………………………...15-16

Conclusion………………………………………………..16-17

Bibliography……………………………………………..18-19

INTRODUCTION

English is a West Germanic language which is the most widely used language in the world. Apart from having the richest vocabulary by far, it is the language with the most non-native speakers, the lingua franca of international business, education, science and politics. It is the most published language and the official language of no less than 58 sovereign countries and spoken primarily in many others (de facto language) ("Field Listing Languages.").  Then the rise of this particular question is inevitable: How did English evolve to become today’s English and the most widely spoken language in the world from a second-rate language of peasants? In this essay I will try to answer this question starting from the Anglo-Saxon migration to the British Isles, taking history, sociology and linguistics in consideration. According to the research I did, I reached the conclusion that the reasons behind the evolution of English can be discussed and summed up in a few points such as the richness of vocabulary brought by the numerous influences from other languages, grammatical simplicity, adaptability and flexibility, Britain’s history in colonization and the Industrial Revolution and America’s political and economic power in the last century.

ANGLO-SAXONS

First of all, I believe it is vital to talk about the origins of the language as well as the influences other languages have had on English to fully understand what it has evolved to today. The modern English language has been influenced by countless languages (including Native American languages and other tribal languages) (‘Major Periods of Borrowing’) and the richness of vocabulary has been attributed to this flexibility and borrowing tradition of English by scholars and linguists (Bryson 73). Among all these influences, there are three major ones: Old Norse, Norman-French, Latin, and Anglo-Saxon (which is not really an influence but basically the core of the language). According to Jespersen, the famous Danish linguist, these influences are "Three super structures, as it were, that came to be erected on the Anglo-Saxon foundation, each of them modifying the character of the language, and each preparing the ground for its successor.’’(Bryson 50). Therefore to begin, the birth of the language and its origins that date back to the 5^th century have to be mentioned, the times where large groups of people from Germanic tribes (mostly Angles, Saxons and Jutes) migrated to Britain. Britain was later dominated by them. The origins of these people are today’s Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands (Woods 3).

As I mentioned, English has the richest vocabulary; there are more than 615,000 words in the Oxford English Dictionary, the closest number in vocabulary to English is thought to be French (around 100,000 words)(Bryson 13 ). Starting from the time when Anglo-Saxons migrated to Britain, ‘’there have been few periods when borrowing became unfashionable, and there has never been a national academy in Britain, the U.S., or other English-speaking countries to attempt to restrict new loanwords, as there has been in many continental European countries.’’ (‘Major Periods of Borrowing’ 9).

‘Old English’ was really different from Modern English, but many modern English speakers would not think it was the same language if they heard it spoken. Nearly half of the words in Modern English root from Old English, but their forms have changed.  Around 4,500 Old English words have survived until the present. Although it is such a small part of the huge Modern English dictionary in number, those are the most basic words, such as love, drink, sleep, eat and man (Bryson 58).

VIKINGS

Later, in the 8^th century, Britain suffered invasions from the Vikings. Viking invaders spoke Old Norse which is also a Germanic language. So Old English and Old Norse were similar since they both root back to the same language. It is noted by many sources that people who spoke Old Norse and Old English could understand each other to some extent. Starting from 793 AD, words of Scandinavian origin were introduced to English, and this period opened the doors to a lasting interaction between Old Norse and English (Levick 10). Most of the words that were introduced to English in that first period of interaction were words about the sea and the Scandinavian administrative system. ‘’ Some examples of these borrowings are law, take and as well the verb form 'are'. They also introduced many new names as they founded new settlements with endings such as –scale and –beck (Woods 9-11). By the 9^th century, Viking descendants controlled almost all of the eastern part of England, the ‘Danelaw’.  This period left a deep-rooted impact on the English language.  There are words that are borrowed from Old Norse in many areas of life such as: names (people and places), many verbs (even simple ones such as ‘get’) and words that reflected the Viking lifestyle such as skate, ski, walrus, and syntax (Merriam Webster: the way in which linguistic elements (as words) are put together to form constituents). The three pronouns they, them and their were also borrowed from the Vikings. Bill Bryson noted that ‘This borrowing of basic elements of syntax is highly unusual, perhaps unique among developed languages, and an early demonstration of the remarkable adaptability of English speakers.’ (Bryson 53).

NORMANS

Later, in 1066, the Norman, William the Conqueror succeeded in becoming the king of England. After William started to rule, Anglo-Norman became the language of the ruling class. Normans spoke a ‘langue d’Oil’ dialect of French (a north dialect). Thus their version of French was different from the French spoken in Paris and became more different over time (Bryson 55).

In their three-hundred-year rule, Normans contributed around 10,000 words to English, and three fourths of it is still in use. As I had stated, Norman French was installed as the official language (Bryson 55). Bill Bryson notes that ‘Norman society had two tiers: the French-speaking aristocracy and the English-speaking peasantry.  ‘’ (Bryson 54). So with the society divided into two different language-speaking classes, words of Anglo-Saxon origin and of French origin were used in different areas. The words the English borrowed from the Normans were words regarding the matters of jurisdiction, government, fashion and high living. For simple professions like a baker, a miller or a shoemaker mostly Anglo-Saxon words were used, meanwhile for more educated professions like mason or painter, French names were used. Likewise, for animals like cow, sheep or swine Anglo-Saxon names were used; they came from the peasant farmers. However, ‘once cooked and brought to the table, they were generally given French names such as beef and bacon (Bryson 55).

       To conclude, other than helping the grammatical shifts that happened in English during the Middle English period as I will mention in a few paragraphs later, the Norman influence made the English vocabulary vastly richer. As Bill Bryson stated, ‘’Alongside the Old English motherhood, we now had maternity, with friendship we had amity, with brotherhood, fraternity.’’ (58)

LATIN

The other major influential language in the development of English is Latin. The influence of Latin on English occurred in different ways and in different periods. Latin words entered English either directly or through other Romance languages, however in this part I will focus only on the words directly borrowed from Latin.

There were a few periods in which words from Latin entered English. Some words such as cheese and wine were introduced even before the Germanic tribes (who would later create the English language) migrated to Britain (Bryson 50), while some like bishop and altar were introduced as a result of Christianization (‘History of the English Language’ 21).

Another period in which a significant number of Latin words were introduced to English was the Renaissance.  Because the Renaissance began and flourished in Italy, the English language was affected significantly both by Latin and Italian when the Renaissance movement arrived in Britain (English Renaissance; c.a from late 15^th century to early 17^th century). ‘’Renaissance also brought a contingent of Italian words. Thanks to its economic riches, military strength, technological and scientific advances, and cultural supremacy, Italy dominated almost every field of endeavor. So it is no surprise that many in England were fascinated by this country. Between 1500 and 1650, the English borrowed heavily from Italian:  bandit, bankrupt, cavalier, cornice, Madonna, opera, partisan, populace, carnival, disgrace.’’(‘History of the English Language’ 59).As a result of being affected by the Italian Renaissance, the enthusiasm for classical languages (Latin and Greek) and the translation of classical texts to English, during the English Renaissance, from around 1500–1650, some 10,000 to 12,000 words entered the English lexicon.

Naturally, the influence and the introduction of many Latin rooted words enriched the English vocabulary significantly and again proved the strong tradition of borrowing from other languages and the adaptability of English.

GRAMMATICAL SIMPLIFICATION AND INFLECTION

Language is defined as ‘’a system of communication used by a particular country or community’’ in the Oxford English Dictionary. All languages, more or less, aim for the same thing; exchanging thoughts and emotions. Despite that, they accomplish it in countless different ways. ‘’It appears there is no feature of grammar or syntax that is indispensable or universal. The ways of dealing with matters of number, case, gender and the like are wondrously various from one tongue to the next.’’(Bryson 35). While some languages torment themselves with complexities, some languages get along fine without complex grammatical features. For example, Polish is regarded as one of the most difficult languages in the world in many studies. Its difficulty is attributed to its extremely complex grammar and pronunciation. Another example is Finnish in which there are fifteen case forms, which means there are fifteen different ways of spelling a word according to the case that the sentence is in (accusative, nominative etc.). As Bill Bryson states, imagine learning fifteen ways of spelling cat, dog or house(35) Modern English, in contrast to Polish, Finnish and other languages, case forms are largely abandoned alongside conjugation and grammatical gender (Bryson 56).

Old English was regarded as a language that was ‘rich in possibilities’ by the celebrated linguist Otto Jespersen (Bryson 50). When literacy was brought to their language, it flourished and in a short period of time England became a center of culture. Another factor that helped the English language develop was the Norman invasion (Bryson 50-56).  Since English didn’t have an official status and was not standardized, it was chaotic. ‘’Early Middle English texts give the impression of a chaos of dialects, without many common conventions in pronunciation or spelling, and with wide divergences in grammar and vocabulary.’’(C. L. Barber 152) Because English was treated as the inferior language of the peasants and was not official; many grammatical simplifications were done more easily. ‘’Its lowly position almost certainly helped English to become a simpler, less inflected language.’’(Bryson 56). And as Albert Baugh and Thomas Cable wrote ‘’By making English the language of mainly uneducated people, the Norman conquest made it easier for grammatical changes to go forward unchecked.’’ (Bryson 56).

Grammatical gender is a system of noun classification in which every noun has a natural gender. In almost all of the widespread languages in the world, it exists. In most, the gender of a noun is decided arbitrarily. Grammatical gender is seen when parts of speech related to nouns such as adjectives or pronouns change their forms in order to fit with the gender of the particular noun ("Grammatical Gender."). 

            Grammatical gender existed in Old English, a classification in which ever noun was treated as masculine, feminine or neuter. Since English was a Germanic and Indo-European language, it was no surprise that it was a complex language. However, with the help of different factors, it fell out of use during the 12^th century.  It started to be abandoned in the 10^th century and it completely disappeared around the 14^th century (Wagner 38).  

The factors behind the loss of grammatical gender are not exactly known. In conclusion, the loss of the grammatical gender system is regarded as the part of the disintegration of the English inflection system. Today, Modern English is not regarded as language with grammatical gender (Wilton 6).

The loss of grammatical gender made the language significantly easier and helped its spread as an international language. It is definite that the mostly arbitrary gender-based noun classification system makes the modern continental European languages notably difficult to learn for the non-natives and even to speak by natives; by making them memorize the genders that have no absolute logic behind them and change the other parts of speech accordingly.

Grammatical conjugation, also called the inflection of verbs, is the creation of verb forms that change according to tense, person, number, gender, aspect, mood or voice. (‘Inflection’ )In other words, conjugation refers to when a verb changes form according to its usage in a sentence. For example, in a sentence where the subject is the first person singular and the tense is present simple, the root ‘be’ becomes ‘am’. This is basically conjugation. (‘Grammatical Gender’)

Old English is regarded as a moderately inflected language, which means words other than verbs as well changed forms according to grammatical categories. In Old English, most of the verbs were highly inflected and they even changed consonants from one form to the next (Bryson 56).

These were systematically standardized and there is only one remaining exception today which is was/were. Modern English today is regarded as a weakly inflected language, it has few inflected words (plurals and pronouns, inflected verb for third person singular) and regular verbs have only four forms. Modern English has largely abandoned inflection in verbs and cases as well except with personal pronouns (Bryson 56-57).

 Surely largely abandoning the inflection of verbs caused the language to simplify notably; making everyday communication significantly easier as well as making foreigners learn the language easier. Moreover, the decay in inflection was not restricted to only verbs or grammatical gender; it was an extensive process in which the English language got simpler in many aspects.

THE BRITISH EMPIRE AND COLONIZATION

Apart from all the factors, grammatical simplicity, adaptability and flexibility, British colonization had a huge role in English’s becoming the most widely spoken language in the world.  The naval strength of the British Empire and the geographical discoveries enabled Britain to colonize almost everywhere in the world, interact with countless cultures and spread the English language and culture. At its peak, Britain ruled almost one fourth of the earth’s surface. (Luscombe 1)

Prior to the global spread, there had been some minor expansions; to Scotland and Ireland, but the global spread of English began in the 16^th century. From the 16^th century onwards the English language spread to different continents thanks to England’s colonial education policy. English was taught because it was seen as a tool to strengthen the British rule and the spreading of the English culture. Apart from this motive, many colonists thought teaching English meant bringing civilization and order to the less developed world (Spichtinger 8-9).

The story of the spread of English to former British colonies is different everywhere.  English colonists in general, unlike the other nations, wanted to settle in the New World permanently rather than just looking for the riches of the land.  They wanted to live there for good while preserving the culture and the language they brought with them from England.  That mentality was a vital factor in English having absolute dominance in North America.  The famous German statesman Otto von Bismarck would later note that the most significant fact of the 20^th century would be the fact that North Americans speak English. Although there had been large migrations from different countries in Europe to America (Italians, Poles, Swedes, Germans etc.), all these groups largely forgot their mother languages and started to speak English after a few generations (Mastin ‘Late Modern English’ 5-22).

Similarly, English became the main influential language and spread to many different areas caused either by migration from Britain (such as Australia or South Africa).As a result, English is the official language of 54 countries and 27 non-sovereign entities, as well as the source of many versions of English and pidgins ("Field Listing Languages").

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Colonialism was first step in the process of spreading English around the world and the next major factor was the Industrial Revolution. 400 years ago power meant political and military power whereas later in the 18^th and 19^th centuries it became technological power. England had both. So with England playing a leading role in colonialism after the 17^th century and in the Industrial Revolution, the spread of the English language was enormous.  England was the dominant economic power which crushed the foreign markets with its cheap and large-scale manufactured goods (Mastin, “Late Modern English”).

The Industrial Revolution was a process rather than an event and it is divided into three phases. It began in England in the late 1700s with some vital inventions in textile manufacturing and steam machines. England was the initiator and the absolute leader of the first era of the Industrial Revolution. In that era, countless inventions were invented in England. As a result, other countries, colonies and countries in continental Europe needed English to access advanced technology. They had to learn English and to learn the necessary technological vocabulary. Approximately 50 percent of the significant scientific and technological output between the late 1700s and 1900 was written in English (Mastin, Late Modern English 1-5).

From the late 19^th century onwards, the United States took over England’s lead in the Industrial Revolution. Vital inventions were made by American inventors during the 19^th century and the early 20^th century. An example is the first telegraph system in which the language they used was English. After that, they made English the international language for all telegraphs. Among other very important American inventions are the light bulb, the telephone and the sewing machine. All these inventions caused the spread of English as the international language for science, technology and business (Mastin, Late Modern English 1-5).

DOMINANCE OF THE US FROM THE 20^TH CENTURY ONWARDS

After the US took over the lead thanks to its plentiful resources and liberal policies, it became the most powerful country in the 20^th century. America was the strongest in terms of its military power and economy. Besides, its dominance in the media and popular culture made it definite that English would remain the most widespread language (Mastin, ‘Late Modern English’ 55-65).

The US was the game changer in the two world wars, and showed its absolute dominance as early as the First World War, when president Woodrow Wilson released the Wilson Principles, in which were some principles about how the world should and would function after the world war (new borders, war debts, war crimes).

Aside from that, during this period in history, when people wanted to establish international organizations they had to utilize one language because it was difficult and costly to do multi-lingual operations. Also, the League of Nations that was founded after World War I, and the United Nations which replaced it after World War II both had their headquarters in New York.  Because of job opportunities, the United States was a very popular destination for immigration and the huge population also helped the spread of English as the one international language (Amador 7-9).

In addition, the advertising that was done in English everywhere helped the spread of the English language significantly. Besides, starting from the late 20^th century, the explosion in the development in computer technology and the invention of the internet multiplied the speed of the spread of English and the American cultural dominance in the world, almost forcing everyone to learn at least a few words in English and embrace the popular American culture (Mastin, 20^th Century and Present Day).

The film and the music industries were really important in the spread of English.  The center of the film industry shifted to Hollywood. The US and England dominated the recording industry as well. All the major record companies were either in America or in England. English-speaking artists of the late 20^th century such as Elvis Presley, the Beatles, and the Rolling Stones dominated the music world. With music, English spread so rapidly among non-native speakers. It became the popular, ‘cool’ language (Amador 11-14).

As a result of historical events in the 20^th and 21^st century in the globalized world, English is the lingua franca in many areas of life and it is used almost everywhere. It is nearly impossible not to know at least a few words of English.

OPPOSITION

As there are opposing point of views to every idea or thesis, there are opposing arguments about English’s level of simplicity as a language or the reasons behind its spread around the world.  While everyone seems to agree on the fact that English is the most widely used language in the world, some argue that it is not an easy language to learn and has more exceptions and idiosyncrasies than it has rules.

            While, English has undergone many simplifications both in grammar and spelling and has become a much less inflected language, for some it is still a relatively complex language by world standards. The first argument is the existence of more exceptions than rules and non-native speakers who just began studying English have difficulty deciding the right way to pronounce or to spell the words. An example of this is the pronunciation differences between the words ‘heard’ and ‘beard’ or ‘five’ and ‘give’ which have very similar spellings. (Bryson 84-85) It is claimed that exceptions can be found no matter which linguist tries to write down rules for spelling in English. Because in English, there is not always one way to pronounce a particular letter, most of the time the pronouncing of the letter changes from word to word usually arbitrarily and sometimes depending on the letter next to it. Therefore linguistically English is highly non-phonemic, in other words spelling is not regular and written symbols (letters in this case) do not always correspond to specific spoken sounds of the language.

An example that shows the difficulty and absurdity of this is the way in which English-speakers are taught about the alphabet and the spelling of other highly phonemic languages; for example, Russian and the Cyrillic alphabet. In the Cyrillic alphabet there is only one way to pronounce every letter. When learning this alphabet, English speakers are told that this particular letter ‘Ж’ they are told that it is pronounced like the ‘s’ in ‘pleasure’, or for this letter ‘Ю ю’ it is the ‘u’ in the word ‘use’. This happens because there isn’t a single way to pronounce the letters ‘u’ or ‘s’. English spelling is based on etymology, meaning that the spelling of a word is caused by the language that it is borrowed from (French, Anglo-Saxon etc.) ("Russian Alphabet").  Another difficulty regarding pronunciation are the stresses.   The meaning of a sentence can be changed if where you put the stress (on different parts of speech) changes. Another problem about stress is that in English, the right way to pronounce a word is based on the syllable where you put the stress. However stress on words does not exist in every language and therefore makes it difficult for non-native English speakers to learn English or to use it correctly (Bryson 95-96).

Another argument about the difficulty of English is the ‘complexity of the grammar’ because its grammatical rules are based on Latin. This causes contradictions and ambiguities constantly since a language based on the rules of a language from another language family is absolutely absurd (Bryson 137).

Furthermore according to some, the irregular conjugations and the cases leftover from Old English make the language complex. While I mentioned the loss of gender, simplification of conjugations and the decline in inflection as a positive thing, it is just a positive thing in comparison to other Indo-European languages, among all world languages there are languages with a lot simpler grammar in other language families.

CONCLUSION

            To conclude, English has evolved to become the most widely used language in the world out of a language initially used predominantly by uneducated peasants mainly because of its richness in vocabulary, grammatical simplicity, and England and America’s dominance in the world in the last few centuries. The story of the English language dates back to the 5^th century, when Germanic speaking tribes migrated to Britain and it has survived through many difficult periods and is now the lingua franca of international business, politics, and science, the official language in many countries and the most studied language in the world by far.

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR:
 The author was born in İzmir,Turkey in 1996 and is now living in Milan, Italy. He is currently studying International Economics and Management at Bocconi University. His fields of interests are history, politics and languages , and he is generally interested in social sciences. He speaks Turkish, English, Italian and a little bit of German and Russian. He started this blog in order to share his thoughts with people, to reach people who share similar interests and to create a platform for discussion. You can reach him via e-mail.


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